Introduction

Batteries are foundational to the energy transition, powering renewable energy, electric vehicles, and regional grid stability. Yet, as the world pushes for widespread electrification, the sustainability of battery supply chains remains a critical challenge. The lack of reliable process data and publicly available bills of materials makes it difficult to assess the carbon footprint of battery production and even harder to compare impacts or implement meaningful improvements to a particular design.

The Data Challenge

Sustainability in battery manufacturing is about more than just moving away from using fossil fuels for manufacturing; it requires a holistic understanding of life cycle impacts. Companies often lack consistent and transparent data on environmental impacts of raw material extraction, mineral processing, manufacturing, and end-of-life recycling. For instance, while lithium-ion batteries are celebrated for their role in decarbonisation, the production processes of their constituent materials can be resource-intensive, contributing to water stress and greenhouse gas emissions.

Minviro, a UK-based global leader in life cycle assessment (LCA) for critical materials, underscores this issue on a daily basis through their work in the raw material and battery sectors. Recent studies from Minviro reveal that life cycle impacts for individual battery materials vary significantly depending on geological or geographic sourcing and the processing methods used in the value chain. For example, their research indicates that hard-rock lithium extraction can produce embodied carbon emissions up to 2.5 times higher than brine-based methods, depending on the energy mix and geographic context. Using the same example, brine-based lithium extraction, depending on the region it is produced, can have a higher water impact due to reduced amounts of freshwater availability in these regions.

"We need precise and context-sensitive data to ensure that our sustainability efforts yield tangible results," says Dr. Robert Pell, CEO of Minviro. “The variability and nuance in each commodity and product value chain underscores the importance of supply chain visibility and location-specific modeling.”

About:Energy, also based in the UK, highlights the importance of battery characterisation and evaluating the bill of materials in understanding the broader implications of battery deployment. Their work demonstrates that optimising battery performance requires high-quality data and robust modeling. About:Energy provides companies with third-party verified and accurate data on a variety of critical topics, including bill of materials, battery lifetime, and vehicle range modeling. The approach ensures that organisations can make informed decisions that drive improvement within the battery industry. This data can subsequently be used in LCAs and requires accounting for not only battery production but also operational efficiencies and recyclability, which often has direct implications on the types and amounts of materials used in different battery types.

"Reliable battery data is the foundation for accurate LCAs, but third-party verification is critical to ensure its credibility. Manufacturers' data and claims must be rigorously checked to drive truly sustainable improvements in the batteries we depend on”, notes Dr. Kieran O’Regan, Co-Founder of About:Energy.

Addressing the Issue: Combining Perspectives for Deeper Understanding

Integrating life cycle data with primary data obtained for specific cells provides a more comprehensive view of battery sustainability. For instance, combining insights from Minviro's LCAs and About:Energy's bill of materials characterisation (that requires teardown in a lab environment) enables organisations to better identify trade-offs and prioritise impactful interventions across the supply chain for their specific battery configurations.

Figure 1: Interface of Minviro’s XYCLE LCA software used in this study to compare the climate change impacts of a LFMP cell using bill of material data from About:Energy

For example, a recent modeling exercise conducted collaboratively on Minviro’s recently launched LCA software, XYCLE, by researchers at Minviro and About:Energy, compared two different lithium-ion cells - the K-Tech IMR34145 LFMP (cylindrical, 12 Ah) and the EVE LF105 LFP (prismatic, 105 Ah). These batteries are intended for e-mobility applications, albeit likely for significantly different use cases. The exercise highlights how (i) material changes and (ii) performance variation can influence the life cycle impact of a single cell. This finding highlights the need for robust data systems and strategic interventions. However, care should be taken when interpreting the LCA results. Particularly when planning for new battery chemistries or configurations, environmental impacts should factor into the development stage of all battery producers - upcoming EU battery carbon footprint regulations mandate full, verified LCAs to be completed and reported by any companies selling batteries in the European market. Minviro and About:Energy combine their expertise to offer a unique integration of precise environmental impact assessments and advanced battery performance modeling, enabling manufacturers to make data-driven decisions that optimise both sustainability and functionality.

Figure 2: Bill of materials for the K-Tech LFMP cell and EVE LFP cells, evaluated from teardown and material characterisation.

Figure 3: Global warming potential impact results (in kg CO2 eq. per kWh) for K-Tech LFMP cell and EVE LFP cell in absolute values

The cradle-to-gate (gate: battery cell facility) LCA results for the two cells assessed in XYCLE, K-Tech LFMP and EVE LFP, offer valuable insights into the environmental impacts of these technologies, with a focus on global warming potential, or embodied carbon impact, as mandated by upcoming EU Battery Regulations. These findings highlight the importance of selecting appropriate reference units and the challenges of bridging theoretical (i.e. academic research) and real-world data when evaluating next-generation battery chemistries.

The results of this study, which measured total climate change impacts in kg CO₂ eq. per kWh, used LFP, the incumbent technology, as the baseline. Due to capacity differences between the two chemistries and the choice of gravimetric energy density as the functional unit, the LFMP cell did not necessarily show a significantly higher impact despite containing manganese and being targeted as the new innovative technology. This is because early or in-development technologies used in real-world applications are used in smaller formats than LFP cells that are often produced in large prismatic configurations. This difference underscores the critical role of functional units in interpreting LCA results. Chemical and design differences shape the overall impact, but as this study demonstrates, real-world energy density data (and resulting capacity for a given cell) often differs significantly from theoretical values and those found in academic research. This is particularly true for LFMP, which, while promising in its piloting phase, is still an emerging technology requiring further development to match or exceed LFP’s well-established energy density performance.

It is important to note that energy density, while a common functional unit, may not always be the best metric for evaluating the environmental performance of battery chemistries. This is especially true for technologies like LFP and LFMP, which are designed to excel in cell longevity rather than energy density alone, in which nickel-based cells succeed more. Relying solely on kWh as a metric overlooks these chemistries' durability and longevity, key factors in their intended use cases. Additionally, the discrepancy between theoretical and real-world parameters extends beyond energy density. Cycle life, another critical performance attribute, is often reported in idealised conditions in the literature, yet real-world data reveals variability that can impact LCA outcomes. Specific cells are also used in significantly different applications, meaning their lifespan depends on the use case, and the lifetime of batteries must be assessed accurately. These factors make primary data collection essential for accurate environmental assessments.

Ultimately, this study highlights an important consideration for future studies. The variability between real-world and theoretical energy densities can influence LCA results, potentially leading to misleading interpretations. Future work should explore whether alternative functional units, such as total capacity over a cell’s lifetime or parameters specific to its intended use case, might provide a more accurate and meaningful basis for comparison.

The Role of Technology: Enabling Better Decisions with Tools Like XYCLE

Technology plays a crucial role in addressing these data challenges. Platforms that consolidate, analyse, and visualise life cycle data are essential for bridging the gap between theoretical and real-world data. This is where tools like XYCLE, Minviro’s newly launched LCA software, and About:Energy’s battery data platform, come into play.

XYCLE is designed to bring clarity to the complexity of battery supply chain and life cycle management. By integrating LCA data and battery bill of material data, XYCLE enables companies to:

• Identify hotspots in their supply chain, such as regions or processes with the highest environmental impact.
• Simulate different scenarios to evaluate the effects of using alternative materials or energy sources.
• Generate transparent reports to comply with emerging battery sustainability regulations and stakeholder expectations.

In this LFP vs. LFMP LCA study, XYCLE was used to integrate life cycle data and climate change impact models, enabling the identification of environmental hotspots and the simulation of different material and battery chemistry scenarios. The software allowed us to assess the impacts of the LFMP CAM relative to LFP CAM while accounting for battery specifications differences such as capacity or gravimetric energy density, as provided by About:Energy’s system. XYCLE’s streamlined approach provided instantaneous and transparent insights, helping bridge the gap between theoretical and real-world data.

As another example, using XYCLE, a battery manufacturer can assess the environmental trade-offs of sourcing key raw materials, like lithium, nickel and cobalt, from different suppliers, considering both carbon footprints and resource efficiency. This empowers decision-makers to choose pathways that align with their sustainability goals while remaining competitive in the market.

"XYCLE has been transformative in helping us visualise and act on life cycle data," says Dr. Robert Pell of Minviro. "The ability to quantify environmental impacts in an instant and simulate impact reduction scenarios is a game-changer for industries striving to improve sustainability."

About:Energy provides high-precision battery data, including electrical, thermal, and ageing parameters, enabling accurate modelling and simulation. This data helps industries like automotive, aviation, and energy storage optimise battery design, improve performance, and accelerate electrification efforts.

Dr. O’Regan of About:Energy adds,

"The integration of tools like XYCLE with our battery data enables companies to operationalise sustainability in ways that were previously unattainable, and truly understand performance and environmental impact side by side."

LFP vs. LFMP LCA study highlights

This LFP vs. LFMP LCA study highlights the valuable insights gained when comparing specific battery cell technologies, whether for companies selecting cells for new programmes or manufacturers aiming to better understand supply chain sustainability. It emphasises the importance of functional unit selection and the evolving nature of real-world data in assessing environmental impacts. LFMP remains an innovation in progress, with potential for improvement as the technology matures At the same time, future LCAs must consider alternative functional units, such as total capacity over a cell’s lifetime, to capture the full scope of environmental performance for next-generation chemistries.

By leveraging tools like Minviro’s XYCLE and About:Energy’s data in unison, researchers and manufacturers can bridge data gaps, enabling more accurate assessments and driving sustainable innovations in battery technologies.

Looking Ahead: Collaboration and Innovation as Key Drivers

Solving the data challenge in battery supply chains requires a collective effort. Companies must leverage cross-sector expertise to build a complete picture of life cycle impacts. Partners like Minviro and About:Energy provide vital pieces of this puzzle, offering the scientific rigor and modeling capabilities needed to drive meaningful progress.

A critical component of this collaboration is the potential integration of dynamic and static data required for compiling Battery Passports or Digital Product Passports (DPPs). These passports mandate the disclosure of key parameters, such as product specifications and performance metrics, many of which are also essential for carbon footprint calculations. By bridging the gap between data collection and analysis, About:Energy’s expertise in battery testing and modeling can ensure precise and efficient aggregation of performance data, while Minviro’s capabilities in carbon footprint assessments translate these datasets into environmental impacts.

Together, these contributions not only help battery producers comply with upcoming EU battery carbon footprint regulations but also lay the groundwork for transparent and sustainable supply chains, aligning with the broader goals of the Circular Economy Action Plan initiative under the European Green Deal, and ensuring that environmental considerations are embedded in every stage of battery value chain.

With tools like XYCLE and About:Energy's expertise in battery performance and material data, we are moving closer to a world where batteries not only power a cleaner future but do so with minimal environmental trade-offs.